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    If a counter-example is restricted to presence ranges onl... — Carmelics
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    Challenges→A genuine counter-example to an inference rule must be defined in terms of presence ranges, not absence ranges

    If a counter-example is restricted to presence ranges only, inference rules become unfalsifiable in domains where properties are known primarily through their absences, violating the Nyāya norm of testability.

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    Key Terms

    Counter-example(in the phrase 'not a counter-example to' the standard view)
    A specific case that contradicts or challenges a general rule or theory you're trying to prove.
    Nyāya(as the philosophical tradition being discussed)
    An ancient Indian school of philosophy that developed detailed rules for logical reasoning and argumentation, similar to how Western philosophy has formal logic.
    Presence ranges(as used in this logical argument)
    The set of cases or situations where something actually exists or is observable.
    Testability(Popperian philosophy of science)
    The degree to which a theory can be subjected to tests by which it is falsified or corroborated; directly proportional to informative content.
    Unfalsifiable

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    (describes the main problem with the hypothesis)
    A statement or theory that's impossible to prove wrong because it's designed in a way that any evidence against it can be reinterpreted to support it instead.
    domains(the statement uses 'domains' to mean different areas where we learn things)
    Specific areas or categories of knowledge and experience—like math, sports, cooking, or recognizing animals.
    inference rules(As used in the DIRT system by Lin and Pantel)
    Rules expressing approximate equivalence between relational phrases, such as 'X finds a solution to Y ≈ X solves Y', derived statistically from text corpora.

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