In Navya-Nyāya epistemology, a counter-example (vyabhicāra) is defined by the co-absence of hetu and sādhya, making absence ranges logically prior to presence ranges in falsification.
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A school of Indian philosophical thought (developed around the 16th century onward) that focuses on logic, language, and how we gain knowledge; it's known for very detailed arguments about perception and reasoning.
Presence ranges(as used in this logical argument)
The set of cases or situations where something actually exists or is observable.
Vyabhicāra(the technical Sanskrit term for counter-example)
The Sanskrit word for 'counter-example' in Navya-Nyāya logic; it literally refers to a case where something fails to work as expected.
epistemology(Contrasted with purely descriptive scientific inquiry)
A normative enterprise that tells us how we ought to reason from evidence and how we ought to justify our beliefs, as distinct from merely describing how we do reason or justify beliefs
falsification(Deductive logic applied to scientific hypothesis testing)
The logical refutation of a hypothesis h_i by evidence, occurring when b·c·e jointly entail ~h_i, derived via modus tollens from h_i·b·c ⊨ ~e and the observation of e
hetu(Nyāya inference structure)
The reason property used to infer the presence of the sādhya in the pakṣa
sādhya(Nyāya inference structure)
The property whose presence in the locus is to be inferred