One of the leading aestheticians of the time, Susanne Langer (1953) saw pragmatism in general, and Dewey in particular, as guilty of psychologism and therefore unable to deal with the issues that really challenge aestheticians. Pragmatism’s assumption is that all human interests are manifestations of drives motivated by animal needs, thus reducing human to animal psychology. Aesthetic values are thereby interpreted either as direct satisfactions or as instrumental to fulfilling psychological nee