When a patient already understands the relevant information (e.g., a physician specializing in the field), disclosure is unnecessary

Many contemporary writers therefore emphasize that truly informed consent requires much more than mere disclosure, and that the point of disclosure, rather, is the comprehension potentially gained through effective communication (Beauchamp and Childress 2008, 127ff; Manson and O’Neill 2007, e.g., 184–5). Psychologists and health literacy experts seek effective ways to improve comprehension among patients and candidate study participants (Candilis and Lidz 2010). And when a patient or a candidate